Evolution Of Management Theory

Evolution Of Management Theory Management has existed throughout the time of man. Management throughout the passing of time has evolved and segregated into different theories however the end game, remains the same that is to achieve a certain goal while working together as a team. There are various definitions to the term management. Lawrence Appely defines management as Management is the development of people and not the direction of things, management is personnel; administration (Agarwal, 2010, p.4). Whereas William Spreigel terms it as Management is that function of an enterprise which concerns itself with the direction and control of the various activities to attain the business objectives. Management is essentially an executive function; it deals particularly with the active direction of the human effort. (Agarwal, 2010, p.4). Management is the integrating force in all organized activity. The verb manage comes from the Italian maneggiare (to handle especially tools), which in turn derives from the Latin manus (hand). The French word mesnagement (later mà ©nagement) influenced the development in meaning of the English word management in the 17th and 18th centuries. (www.wikipedia.com. 2012. Management. [ONLINE] Available at: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management. [Accessed 13 December 12].) Management has been put to use throughout the history of mankind. Management like thought has been seen right from the building of the pyramids to emperor Ashoka conquering all of India or bharat as it was and still is known. Management is extremely important in the functioning of any task, or organisation in order for it to be successful. If there is a fault in the management it can lead to failure of the task or improper functioning of the company. It is difficult to trace the exact origins of management but one can see its evolution throughout time. In chronological order the very first piece of evidence of management theory can be seen in Chanakyas Arthashashtra, followed by Sun Tzus The Art of War, followed by Niccolà ² Machiavellis The Prince, followed by Adam Smiths The Wealth of Nations. The 19th century later gave rise to classical economists such as and John Stuart Mill (1806-1873 Adam Smith (1723-1790). These economists provided an academic background on resource-allocati on, production and pricing issues. Alternatively, visionaries like James Watt (1736-1819), Matthew Boulton (1728-1809) Eli Whitney (1765-1825), and developed fundamentals of procedural assembly such as standardization, quality-control procedures, cost-accounting, inter-changeability of parts, and work-planning. The first complete principles of management appeared around the year 1920. The Concept of Corporation (published in 1949) a well-known book that was written by Peter Drucker (1909-2005) was one of the earliest books on applied management. Science of management written by Henry R Towne was published in the 1890s, The Principles of Scientific Management conceptualized by Frederick Winslow Taylor was published in the year 1911, Applied motion study was published in the year 1917, which was written by Frank and Lillian Gilbreth.J. Duncan wrote the first college management textbook in 1911. Yoichi Ueno was the first person to introduce taylorism to Japan in 1912 and he became the first management consultant of the Japanese-management style. Ichiro Ueno, his son pioneered Japanese quality assurance. As one can see from the above examples we know that management has been influenced by various disciplines such as economics, political science, psychology, anthropology and even literature. Earlier management theories aimed at getting to know these newcomers of the industrial life at the end of the nineteenth century and beginning of the twentieth century in Europe and the United States. THE CLASSICLAL OR UNIVERSAL SCHOOL The oldest form of the school of management of thought is the classical school. It dates, back to the twentieth century. The classical or universal thought deals with how to manage work organisations more effectively. There are three areas of management that can be classified under the classical school or universal school of thought. They are as follows- 1. Scientific management 2. Bureaucratic management 3. Administrative management The beliefs of the classical or universal school of thought- Fredrick Taylor was the founder of the classical school of thought. Earlier, the body of the classical school of thought implied that employees, have only psychical and economical needs, and that the concept of job-satisfaction was in fact alien to it. This school advocates high specialization of labour, centralized decision making, and profit maximization. The basic components compounded by Taylor for the scientific management school are as follows- Determination of standards of performance. Functional foremanship Responsibilities of management. Differential piecework of system of wage payment Mental revolution. Henri Fayol, and Max Weber are exceptional contributors of Classical School of management thought who made great contribution and laid the grounds for contemporary management. THE BEHAVIOURAL OR HUMAN RELATION SCHOOL The Hawthorne plant of Western Electric Company conducted experiments by Mayo,Roethlisberger and others for the first time on the human aspects of organizations in the 1930s. This approach had previously been ignored by the classical theorists. This school is dubbed as neo-classical as it follows the academic form of classical theory and emphasises the human element of management as a counterpoint in contrast to the impersonality of classical theory. These experiments led to the development of new premises. These premises were the motivation to work; morale and productivity are related to the social conditions among the workers and the supervisor, and not to the psychical conditions at work. Considerable contributions made by Kurt Lewin, Chris Argyris,Rensis Likert ,and Douglas McGregor have helped shaped this school for being whatever it is today. Abraham Maslow a renowned psychologist developed a very widely recognised hierarchy of needs. This is now known as Maslows hierarchy of needs. This is a concept of motivation based on the needs of every human being. His concept had three assumptions. They are- The needs of a human being are never truly satisfied. Human behaviour is purposeful and is motivated by the need for satisfaction. The needs of a human being can be classified according to a hierarchical structure of importance, from the lowest to highest. The above three premises prove that human beings need a motivation in order to get the job done. This theory has been highly useful for managers in order to help motivate their employees. THE MANAGEMENT SCIENCE OR QUANTITATIVE SCHOOL Mathematicians, physicists, and scientists came together in order to solve the problems caused by World War II. The key feature of this school is its use of mathematics and statistics to help in determining production and operation problems. This approach helps in solving technical rather than human behaviour problems. It comprises a diverse team of experts from whatever fields the problem being attacked calls for. The team members then analyse the problem and then make a mathematical representation of it. Therefore they would change some aspects of the equation to see what would happen in the real world. The most important contributions of management science are in the areas of operations management and production management. (Duening, 2003) THE CONTENGENCY/SITUATIONAL OR ALL DEPENDS SCHOOL The contingency school was birthed in the 1970s. As the very name suggests this school of thought is based on possibility. In this approach managers deal with each problem differently based on the situation and its belief lies in evaluating many options to solve one problem. This theory recognises that there is no one best way to design organisations and manage them. It weighs down the variables and then decides based on the varying factors as to what would be the best solution. This approach is highly dependent on the judgement of the manager in any given situation. It focuses on the inter-relationships within and among the subsystems as well as between the organisation and its environment. (Agarwal, 2010) For example-when taco bell asked itself what would ensure its success, they revamped their business based on the simple philosophies of customers value food, provision, and the aesthetic appeal of the restaurant. Taco bell then hired new managers who would ensure that their philosophies were put into action thereby ensuring their success. (Anon., n.d.) THE SYSTEM SCHOOL The system school of thought sees the organization as one whole purposeful and united body rather than seeing it in its different parts and pieces. Its early contributors include Lawerence J.Henderson,W.G.Scott, Daniel Katz, J.D Thompson, etc. This approach helps the managers to look at the broader picture. This school conveys to us that every single action done by any section of the company affects the other segments of the company in varying degrees. In this school managers make their decisions only after they have weighed down each and every single option as to if that decision has been taken, how it will affect the company. The managers cannot function based on their department alone; they must take the whole company into account. In order for them to run smoothly they must be in constant touch with the other departments of the company as well, so that they can base their decisions accordingly. CONCLUSION Management as one has seen above is under constant development. It always has more room for change for its own betterment. It has existed since time immemorial. The schools of thought are simply the different approaches that are used by any person, or organisation in order for it to achieve its goals. In this document there are 5 schools of thought that have been explained. They are the classical school, the human relations school, , the management science school, the contingency theory school. They are summarized as follows- The classical school- the classical school consist of three theories, namely. Scientific management, Bureaucratic management and Administrative management. The major purposes of the school were to develop the basic principles that could guide the design, creation and maintenance of large organisations and to identify the basic functions of managing organizations. (Duening, 2003) The behavioural school or human relation school- this school takes on a managerial approach as to how the role of people affects the success of the organisation. It also emphasises the structure of the organisation and work environment affects their behaviour and performance.it simply states that if the employees are kept in a good working environment then their productivity will increase, which in turn will lead to successful operations of the company. (Duening, 2003) The management science or quantitative school- this school gives us a mathematical representation of the problems that are faced. Therefore when one changes one of the factors in the equation one can anticipate what the result would be in the real world. Important contributions that were made were in the areas of production management and operations management. The contingency /situational or all depends school- this theory implies that every situation that a management faces is unique therefore it is left up to the managers discretion as to how h/she chooses to deal with it. This requires the manager to have a great deal of experience and good judgement. It also states that there is no one best way to deal with a problem. Instead it asserts the need to understand different problems and how to deal with them differently. The system school- the system school saw the organisation as a whole instead of dividing it into bits and pieces. This helped keep in mind the larger picture and that was the achievement of the companys goals rather than those of the individual departments.

Mary, Where are U :: essays research papers

The debate over whether or not the United States government should grant tuition vouchers to the parents of children who attend private schools has gone on for many years, and has included many powerful arguments on both sides of the issue. Those who support the private school vouchers believe that they are beneficial to everyone because they promote productivity in both public and private schools alike, and they also give low-income families the chance to give their children a quality private school education. Those in opposition to the vouchers say that they will drain money out of the public schools, and that they only truly help a small population, mainly the wealthy and advantaged. Opposers also believe that the vouchers interfere with the Separation of Church and State, since many private schools have a religious affiliation. This issue has truly been a controversial one, with many people fighting arduously. After reading through the various arguments for each side, one can not help but come to their own conclusion about private school vouchers. There have been many school voucher programs proposed in the past, but they all seem to share one common theme. This similarity between them is that they all promote giving households that send their children to private schools a tax dollar-funded voucher that would cover all or most of the cost of the school's tuition. Many of the proposals also include the right for parents to chose which private school their child will attend. The vouchers allows students to use the money that would be subsidized for them in a public school to go toward a private school education. This system redirects the flow of educational funding, bringing it to the individual family instead of the school district. The idea of school vouchers first became popular after Milton Friedman, an economist, released two publications, in 1956 and in 1962, that supported the voucher plan. In his 1962 book, Capitalism and Freedom, when Friedman discusses education, he turns to public education criticizes it for being "unresponsive" because it has been free from competition (Lieberman, 120). Vouchers would provide this much needed competition, since public schools would now have to contend with the private schools that were receiving the same payments they were. Friedman believes that, "most dissatisfied parents have only two options. They can enroll their children in private schools, in which case they have to bear the costs in addition to paying taxes to support public schools. Or they can resort to political action, an option Friedman regards as ineffective." (ibid.) After Friedman publicly showed his support for school vouchers, a debate began

Benjamin Franklins Poetry Essay

This is a research paper which I shall analyze on the comparison of Benjamin Franklins thoughts and Ideals on remarks concerning the Savages of North America and The Way to Wealth. Benjamin Franklins (1706-1790) who was a renowned founder father of the United States, he participated in its development as a philosopher, scientist, publisher and a leading writer who is important in the history of American history. He wrote a lot of literature materials which are of essence even today and they are used in most analysis of human development and livelihood. He is credited for being the founder of the American character and values he participated by enlightening people the importance of education, community service and hard work so that they would be able to develop themselves. He also emphasized on building self governing institutions which are not authoritative but those which shows sense of leadership to prosperity of the Americans. In this research paper I shall compare and contrast his writing in The Way to Wealth which is also know as Father Abrahams Sermon which he wrote in 1758 and Savages of North America which he wrote in 1784. The write up of The Way to Wealth had its theme based on frugality and work ethics. While, Savages of North America is a narration whose theme is based on the difference between the civilized North American society and the Indians who were referred to as uncivilized. According to Wohlpart (1996) the American Citizens were much concerned about being heavily taxed by the government and they requested Benjamin response which they awaited eagerly. To their surprise Benjamin spoke his mind to address on how they would be able to elevate themselves from poverty and make better use of the idle time they had. He notified them that they are taxed thrice by their pride, thrice by their idleness and four times by their folly and there was need to change how they operated. He told them â€Å"God helps them that help themselves† and therefore they must do something meaningful to alleviate themselves from poverty. He let them know that those people who love life they do not squander time for it is what life is made of. He challenged them for long hours which they spend asleep knowing very well that sleeping fox does not catch poultry. He told them â€Å"Time is money† and â€Å"lost time is never found again† therefore it was important to use every time one has at their disposal. He as well advised them it is only being early to bed and early to rise up which makes on wealthy and they should not tolerate laziness as it travels very slow therefore being overtaken by poverty. He wrote that â€Å"There are no gains, without pains† so they should not hope and wish for better times because those who live hoping shall die fasting. Those who have trade they have estates while those who have offices they make profits and the must work on them so that they would productive enough to pay their taxes and have enough to develop their lives. He assured the Americans that if at all they are industrious they will never starve as he told them â€Å"diligence is the mother of good lack†. He emphasized that one should do what is possible today without postponing it tomorrow because â€Å"one today is worth two tomorrows† and any delay will just result to things being pilled up undone the following day (Wohlpart, 1996). The reason why they should take his advice serious is because there is a lot which they needed to do for themselves, their country and families and this would only have been achieved by working hard and being not idle. He encouraged each of them to be their own masters and they should not get themselves idle as no one would wish to be found idle by their master. He made them understand that leisure is not idleness but a time when one does meaningful things he wrote â€Å"A life of leisure and a life of laziness are two things† signifying that they should as well take the time which they refer as leisure very important and do something useful but not squander what they have labored for long and tirelessly. In his writings â€Å"Get what you can, and what you get hold† he meant that most of the time gains are quit uncertain and temperately and they should be well guarded because as he advised them that it is much better to â€Å"go to bed supper-less than to rise in debt†. This was meant to encourage them to live within their means and take charge of their wealth. Benjamin in his write up Salvages on North America which compared North Americans societies which he referred to as civilized and the Indians who were uncivilized. He presented it in using the incident of the treaty of Lancer which the governor of Pennsylvania presented an idea of taking the responsibility to provide all the comfort of the young Indians who will be sent to colleges (Lemay 2000). Benjamin shows on how the native population of the Indian Taught the North Americans about cultural relativism. By understanding that different nations usually have different conception, he wrote that the Indians when they are young they are warriors and hunters and when they grow up they are counselors. While, the women nurses and bring up their children and till they ground for food, it is also their responsibility to preserve public transactions which they pass over to the next generation through oral teachings. According to Lemay (2000) this form of employment which was much more natural was quit different on with the formalized civilization in the Northern America where there is government for the purpose of legislations and maintenance of order and a favorable environment for businesses to thrive. The life styles also necessitate it to have prisons, and officers who use force to compel obedience among the citizens. This is because civilizations come along with complexity in management and administration of the society that why they need established systems to take control of. The Indians although their youths are proposed to be trained in the white college and their payments be met by Government of Virginia they claim it would be of no use because after the training they will not be of any use at their home country. Because livelihood in India was done by being a warrior or hunter for men and taking care of children and subsistence cultivation by ladies which was not being addressed by the formal leaning of science and other studies which they were being taught. Indians are much polite and when they held their public councils they were much orderly and respected each others idea and they did not disrupt one another. Interruptions even when one is conversing with one another are regarded as being highly indecent, because their presentations were not written and any disruptions would interfere with the string of thoughts which would lead to forget what one intended to deliver. Benjamin compared on how disorderly and disrespectful the British House of commons is which there are frequent confusion as participants keeps on interrupting each other and the speaker has to intervene to maintain orderliness (Lemay 2000). This shows on how he was fascinated by the power of oral culture which was passed over generations orally by the six nations in India which is orderly as compared to the chaotic disrespectful discussions by so known civilized nations. The Indians had a lot of civility as compared to the citizens of North America; the Indians were hospitable to the Americans when they visit them. They are taken care of without pay but when Indians visits them they do pay for every thing which they spent. Benjamin in his write-up he shows on how churches would be seen as sinister places by on lookers that they are not meant for those who go there to be taught good things but places where business men congregate to set prices against the native traders. This is because the white settlers are seen being more cruel and rude by the Indians in their way of life and that the reason why they meet every other seventh day. The main concept of this write-up Benjamin was trying to show the different of the civilized and uncivilized societies. This proves that acceptance and demand of equality among different people had a long way to go because they are in different regions which has different needs to support their livelihood. Therefore its importance for each societal setup to adhere to their norms and practice which supports their unity and development in what they participate together (Baym, 1998). The main concern of the American was on how they would be able to establish industrialization to meet their rising cost of living and be able to pay tax while the Indians concern is on how one would be a good worrier and counselor when aged. This shows on how human kind should be able to use the resources at their disposal to better their livelihood. Work cited Baym, Nina. The Norton Anthology of American Literature: Beginnings to 1875. New York: W. W. Norton & Company. 1998 Lemay, Leo. Remarks Concerning the Savages of North America. 2000 Wohlpart, Jim. Benjamin Franklin’s â€Å"The Way to Wealth†. University of South Florida in Fort Myers. 1996 >

Butterfly Bush Alternatives for Environmentally Friendly Gardeners

Gardeners who want to attract butterflies to their gardens often plant butterfly bush (genus Buddleia), a fast growing shrub that blooms prolifically. While butterfly bush is easy to grow, inexpensive to buy, and a good attractant for butterflies,  some argue its one of the worst choices for a butterfly garden. For years,  butterfly bush  (Buddleia) has divided gardeners into two camps: those who plant it without apology, and those who think it should be banned. Fortunately, its now possible to plant butterfly bushes without negatively impacting the environment. Why Gardeners Love Butterfly Bush Buddleia  is well-loved by butterfly gardeners because it is well-loved by butterflies. It blooms from spring to fall (depending on your  growing zone), and produces an abundance of nectar-rich flowers that butterflies cannot resist. Butterfly bush is easy-to-grow and tolerates poor soil conditions. It requires almost no maintenance, other than an annual hard pruning (and some gardeners even skip that). Why Ecologists Hate Butterfly Bush Unfortunately, a plant that produces such a bumper crop of flowers also produces a bumper crop of seeds.  Buddleia  is not native to North America; butterfly bush is an exotic plant from Asia. Ecologists deemed the shrub a threat to native ecosystems, as butterfly bush seeds escaped backyard gardens and invaded forests and meadows. Some states banned the sale of  Buddleia and listed it as a noxious, invasive weed. For commercial growers and nurseries, these bans were consequential. According to the USDA, the production and sale of butterfly bush was a $30.5 million industry in 2009. Despite  Buddleias environmental impact, gardeners still wanted their butterfly bushes, and growers wanted to continue producing and selling it. While butterfly bush provides nectar for butterflies, it offers no value for butterfly or moth larvae. In fact, not a single native North American caterpillar will feed on its leaves, according to entomologist Dr. Doug Tallamy, in his book Bringing Nature Home.   For Gardeners Who Cant Live Without Buddleia Butterfly bush spreads easily because it produces thousands of seeds during the course of a growing season. If you insist on growing butterfly bush in your garden, do the right thing: deadhead Buddleia flowers as soon as the blooms are spent, all season long. Shrubs to Plant Instead of Butterfly Bush Better yet, choose one of these native shrubs instead of butterfly bush. In addition to  providing nectar, some of these native shrubs are also larval food plants. Abelia x grandiflora, glossy abeliaCeanothus americanus, New Jersey tea​Cephalanthus occidentalis, buttonbushClethra alnifolia, sweet pepperbushCornus spp., dogwoodKalmia latifolia, mountain laurelLindera benzoin, spicebushSalix discolor, pussy willowSpiraea alba, narrowleaf meadowsweetSpiraea latifolia, broadleaf meadowsweetViburnum sargentii, Sargents cranberry bush BuddleiaBreeders to the Rescue Just when you were getting ready to compost your butterfly bushes for good, horticulturalists found a solution to the problem.  Buddleia  breeders produced cultivars that are, in effect, sterile. These hybrids produce so little seed (less than 2% of traditional butterfly bushes), they are considered non-invasive varieties. The State of Oregon, which has a rigorous ban on  Buddleia  in place, has recently amended their ban to allow these non-invasive cultivars. Seems you can have your butterfly bush and plant it, too. Look for these non-invasive cultivars at your local nursery (or ask your favorite garden center to carry them!): Buddleia  Lo Behold ®Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬ËœBlue Chip’Buddleia ‘Asian Moon’Buddleia  Lo Behold ®Ã¢â‚¬ËœPurple Haze’Buddleia  Lo Behold ®Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬ËœIce Chip’ (formerly ‘White Icing’)Buddleia  Lo Behold ®Ã‚  Ã¢â‚¬ËœLilac Chip’Buddleia ‘Miss Molly’Buddleia ‘Miss Ruby’Buddleia Flutterby Grandeâ„ ¢Ã‚  Blueberry Cobbler Nectar BushBuddleia Flutterby Grandeâ„ ¢Peach Cobbler Nectar BushBuddleia Flutterby Grandeâ„ ¢Ã‚  Sweet Marmalade Nectar BushBuddleia Flutterby Grandeâ„ ¢Ã‚  Tangerine Dream Nectar BushBuddleia Flutterby Grandeâ„ ¢Ã‚  Vanilla Nectar BushBuddleia Flutterby Petiteâ„ ¢Ã‚  Snow White Nectar BushBuddleia Flutterbyâ„ ¢Ã‚  Pink Nectar Bush One important thing to remember, though, is that  Buddleia  is still an exotic plant.  While it is an excellent source of nectar for adult butterflies, its not a  host plant  for any native caterpillars. When planning your wildlife-friendly garden, be sure to include  native shrubs  and flowers to attract the most butterflies.